Emotional Child Abuse - 2799 Words

Emotional Child Abuse By: Goddess Johnson The term emotional child abuse didnt even exist when I was growing up. But that didnt change the devastating outcome--the effects were severe, ever-present, and followed me into adulthood. Emotional abuse is the cornerstone of all the abuses because emotional abuse is always present during physical child abuse, child neglect, and sexual child abuse, and it is the only abuse that can stand on its own. It does not have to accompany any of the other abuses. What Is Emotional Abuse? Emotional child abuse is defined as the constant attack of a child or youth by an adult that negatively affects the child or youths self-worth. It is important to note here the word constant. With emotional†¦show more content†¦Emotional abuse of a child — also referred to as psychological maltreatment — can include: Ignoring. Either physically or psychologically, the parent or caregiver is not present to respond to the child. Rejecting. This is an active refusal to respond to a child’s needs (e.g., refusing to touch a child, denying the needs of a child, ridiculing a child). Isolating. The parent or caregiver consistently prevents the child from having normal social interactions with peers, family members and adults. Exploiting or corrupting. In this kind of abuse, a child is taught, encouraged or forced to develop inappropriate or illegal behaviors. It may involve self-destructive or antisocial acts of the parent or caregiver, such as teaching a child how to steal or forcing a child into prostitution. Verbally assaulting. This involves constantly belittling, shaming, ridiculing or verbally threatening the child. Terrorizing. Terrorizing can include placing the child or the child’s loved one (such as a sibling, pet or toy) in a dangerous or chaotic situation, or placing rigid or unrealistic expectations on the child with threats of harm if they are not met. Neglecting the child. This abuse may include educational neglect, where a parent or caregiver fails or refuses to provide the child with necessary educational services; mental health neglect, where the parent or caregiver denies or ignores a child’s need for treatment for psychological problems; orShow MoreRelatedThe Effect of Child Abuse on The Emotional Development of the Infant1229 Words   |  5 PagesEffect of Child Abuse on the Emotional Development of the Infant to Five Years Old in the United States A Review of the Literature Child abuse is one of the most serious issues in the United States today. Child abuse is the physical, emotional/ psychological or sexual maltreatment of a minor. Neglecting a child is another type of abuse, and includes malnutrition, abandonment, and/or inadequate care of a child’s safety. Additionally, any neglectful act can lead to physical or emotional harm and inRead MoreThe Effect Of Child Abuse On The Emotional Development Of The Infant To Five Year Old Child In The United States. 681 Words   |  3 PagesEffect Of Child Abuse On The Emotional Development Of The Infant To Five Years Old Child In The United States. Child abuse is one of the most serious issues in the United States today. Child abuse is generally the maltreatment of a minor, and includes a physical, emotional or psychological harm to a child. Neglecting a minor is another type of abuse such as malnutrition, abandonment, and inadequate care of a child’s safety. Additionally, any neglectful act can lead to physical or emotional harm andRead MorePhysical And Emotional Abuse And Child Neglect994 Words   |  4 Pagesin horrible abusive relationships? What do we tell those that have been raped? What about child abuse or child neglect? If you see your spouse in that situation with your children are you supposed to let it go on only because it’s not adultery? I believe that this is one of the things that make what Jesus said so unclear. There are many situations that require the action of removal. Physical and emotional abuse are two very, very clear cases for this. When a spouse is actively attacking the other withRead MoreWhat is Emotional Abuse?1154 Words   |  5 PagesEmotional abuse refers to a pattern of behavior of the caregivers or parents, which interferes the cognitive, psychological, emotional as well as social development of the child in a serious or severe manner. Emotional child abuse therefore refers to a persistent and severe ill handling or treatment of the child by the caregiver or parent. Emotional abuse may be the only form of mental challenger the child is suffering from or it may be a combination of many other effects or child neglect. This mayRead MoreChild Abuse And Its Effects On Children1160 Words   |  5 Pagesparents and other caregivers do not intend to hurt their children, but abuse is defined by the effect on the child, not the motivation of the parents or caregiver. Tens of thousands of children each year are traumatized by physical, sexual, and emotional abusers or by caregivers who neglect them, making child abuse as common as it is shocking. Most of us can’t imagine what would make an adult use violence against a child, and the worse the behavior is, the more unimaginable it seems. But theRead More Child Abuse and Neglect Essay1139 Words   |  5 PagesChild Abuse is a very serious issue all throughout the world, in all different countries, cultures, and communities. The four main types of abuse are emotional abuse, physical abuse, neglect, and sexual abuse, and although emotional abuse and neglect are often overlooked, each has just as severe effects on children as sexual and physical abuse (Saisan et al.). The many causes of all kinds of the abuse of children have devastating effects on the child’s life presently and later on in life. ThereRead MoreVerbal Emotional And Emotional Abuse1486 Words   |  6 Pagesalone, there are many people on a daily basis who suffer from verbal-emotional abuse. In today’s society too many of our children live in homes where they face verbal-emotional abuse on a regular basis. In this paper we will discuss what verbal emotional abuse is, why so many children face verbal-emotional abuse and how to tell what the signs of verbal emotional abuse are in order to assist a child in need. Verbal emotional abuse is defined in many ways because there are so many underlying meaningsRead MoreEffects of Emotional Abuse Essay example1460 Words   |  6 Pagesyear more cases of Emotional abuse go unreported because the majority of people experiencing emotional abuse are not aware that it is happening. I was one of these people years ago; it took some caring friends to get me to see what was going on. In the following paragraphs I will touch on ways one can tell they are being emotionally abused, and ways to get help. While Undefined, Emotional abuse affects more people each day because they do not know that they are being abused. Abuse is any behaviorRead MoreLooking at Types of Child Abuse1768 Words   |  7 Pages† This quote is from Dave Pelzer’s novel, A Child Called â€Å"It†. This quote is referring to, the idea that a child should feel like he/ she could do anything in their childhood, without worrying about any problems going on in the world or in his/her parents lives. Child abuse has been happening worldwide for many years and still is. For this reason, the desire to prevent this issue can be realized through the aid of organizations such as CAPA (Child Abuse Prevention Association) as well as through theRead MoreChild Abuse Prevention And Treatment Act1400 Words   |  6 PagesChild abuse is when a parent or caregiver, through action or failure to act, causes injury, death, emotional harm or risk of serious harm to a child. According to The Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, as amended by the CAPTA Reauthorization Act of 2010, at a minimum, child abuse and negl ect is defined as, Any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation; or An act or failure

Components of a Good Writer Essay - 853 Words

Writing is one of most difficult subjects to master due to the writing tactics many writers use and the different tips followed for the various writing topics. A writer will elaborate strongly when pressure is not included during the time they are writing. If a writer feels pressure while writing a paper it will become visible to readers that the writer was not comfortable causing them confusion. Another important factor to take under consideration is the time that the author spends when writing because it will reflect on their critic’s opinions. When writers feel freedom to include all their ideas their writing becomes a jargon of ideas however, if given a prompt writing is more clear and straightforward. Prompts give writers the topic†¦show more content†¦To fill the blank white page is the only goal in the writers mind even though their words are all unorganized. When writing under pressure writers weaken their text and are inclined to make mistakes such as punc tuation and grammar without going noticed. Writing under pressure causes the writer to lose focus and leads to rush writing leading to common mistakes (Weingarten 7). When a deadline becomes a countdown stress will only pile up and every process associated with writing will become a horror movie. Therefore, writing under pressure will only lead to a page with words that the reader will not understand because it lacks conciseness. Prompts for writing provide a structured statement to argue for or against which makes the writer clear about their own opinions leading to a more organized writing sample. A prompt should be split into parts in order to develop an opinion based the statement, and a writer should ask questions relating to the writing prompt. It is often said that â€Å"free writing† or writing without a prompt leads writers to write more effectively however, prompts leads writers to research a topic they knew nothing about before. A prompt leads writers to become inf ormed about topics they knew nothing about. Writing prompts spark creativity that helps writers think about old memories in a new way or think about new concepts all together. Furthermore using writing prompts creates aShow MoreRelatedSelf-Regulation in Writing Essay680 Words   |  3 Pagesis a critical component in learning to write. There have been 25 studies that have shown that teaching students self-regulation strategies in writing has improved their ability to write. Self-regulation strategies have even improved writing in students with learning disabilities. So what is self-regulation in writing? In general self-regulation refers to the thoughts, feelings, and actions writers initiate to reach their writing goals. 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The first part of They Say I Say focuses on how to properlyRead MoreEnglish Homework Eng99 Essay631 Words   |  3 Pages#2 Models For Writers Textbook Pages 172-180 Questions For Study and Discussion 1. What exactly does Zinsser mean by clutter (1)? How does he believe we can free ourselves of clutter? 2. Identify the main idea in each of the thirteen paragraphs. How is each paragraph related to Zinssers topic and purpose ? 3. In what ways do paragraphs 4-6 serve to illustrate the main idea of paragraph 3? (Glossary: Illustration) 4. In paragraph 11, Zinsser says that writers must constantlyRead MoreThe Main Components Of An Effective Writer s Workshop1048 Words   |  5 Pagesare changing and so too are traditional roles in diverse classrooms. No longer is writing just strictly done in the English class. Subjects are intertwining as students are connecting more and more of their worlds. 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I learned step by step how to write a good essay and how to have your readers be engaged in what you’re trying to tell them. Each essay I did has taught me something valuable I can take to the next level of English. I feel as if as the semester went by I did not take my writing that seriously and that reflected in my grades I received in each essay. It made me a better student and writer and it will reflect next semester. In this essay, I will reflect on what IRead MoreWriting A Paper For Class936 Words   |  4 Pagesdifferent components to it such as being organized. So now when we think of all the different ways of writings we have to focus on one. We ask ourselves, what is good writing? Well I would say that good writing consist of many things, but we are going to focus on these three; making sure your writing has a main purpose, supporting your work with evidence, and using the correct grammar and spelling. 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Role and Performance of Government and Ngos in Relie F Free Essays

ijcrb. webs. com INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS JUNE 2011 VOL 3, NO 2 Role and Performance of Government and NGOs in Relief Assistance: A Case Study of 2005 Earthquake61 Khalil Ahmad(Corresponding author) Assistant Professor of Economics University of the Punjab, Lahore Tanveer Ahmed Naveed Lecturer, Department of Economics University of Gujrat Sami Ullah Lecturer, Department of Economics University of Gujrat Tahir Rashid Ph. We will write a custom essay sample on Role and Performance of Government and Ngos in Relie F or any similar topic only for you Order Now D. Scholar at Government College University, Lahore (Pakistan) Abstract This study investigates the role and performance of Pakistan government and humanitarian agencies during relief and emergency aid assistance to 2005 earthquake victims. This comparative study is based on empirical data collected from 30 most affected villages of NWFP (Pakistan) and AJK through a sample survey on 1st anniversary of 2005 earthquake. About 500 randomly selected heads of the families were interviewed in the sampled area. Mann-Whitney Wilcoxon test is used to compare the relief assistance provision and satisfaction shown by sufferers toward government agencies and Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) during relief program. While Chi-Squire test is used only to investigate the relationship between affected areas and respondents’ demographic characteristics. Evidently, results show that the NGOs provided more relief items in a better way to victims of 2005 earthquake than did the Government of Pakistan. This study will be helpful in disaster management planning at government and non-governmental levels. Keywords: Performance; Earthquake; NGOs; Government; Relief Efforts BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION Pakistan experienced a destructive earthquake on October 8, 2005, at 8:50 PST, intensity of 7. 6 measuring on Richter scale. Arguably, this was the most devastating disaster in Pakistan’s history. The earthquake epicenter was located 100 kilometers north-northeast of Islamabad. Intensity of losses increased by a series of aftershocks, more than 1000 aftershocks ‘ranging from magnitude 5. 0 to 6. 0’ were recorded as of October 27th in IndiaPakistan Kashmir region. 61 Authors are very thankful to PATTAN Development Organization (National NGO) and Dr. S. M. Naseem for financial help and motivation in study conduction COPY RIGHT  © 2011 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1726 ijcrb. webs. com INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS JUNE 2011 VOL 3, NO 2 At least 73,000 people had died, another 70,000 had been severely injured or disabled and over 2. 8 million persons have been left without shelter. In addition, 600,000 houses, 6,298 schools and 796 health facilities were demolished. About 6,440 kilo meters roads were damaged and 50-70% of the water supply, sanitation, telecommunication and power infrastructure was rendered un-operational. Pakistan 2006) It is nearly impossible to figure out exact economic impact of earthquake 2005. In total, about US$5. 2 billion was estimated cost of earthquake; includes cost of relief provision to victims, restoration of livelihood support and short, medium and long term reconstruction (ADB and World Bank, 2005). The most immediate task was rescue of people trapped in collapsed buildings and to transport them at safer places along with provision of relief to survivors to save the lives and to secure the dignity of affected population (ERRA, Annual Review 2005 to 2006). The Government of Pakistan immediately realized the enormity of the task and appealed to the international community for emergency assistance. The Government of Pakistan and national international agencies took immediate measures for rescue, relief and reconstruction for 3. 5 million affected people of NWFP and AJK. Generally, donor agencies and the external sources prefer to channelize emergency assistance to disaster victims through international and/or indigenous NGOs due to all pervasive corruption and misappropriation of relief funds on the part of the Governments. The government of Pakistan and participating slocal, national, and international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) with the help of domestic and external sources initiated massive rescue and relief activities in the area. (ERRA, Annual Review 2005 to 2006) Both, government of Pakistan and NGOs played important role in relief distribution and rehabilitation activities. Government of Pakistan established the central coordination office for rescue and relief started to work at Prime Minister (PM) Secretariat immediately after the earthquake. Federal Relief Commission was established on 10th October 2005 to mobilize all resources, to coordinate activities and to facilitate flow of relief goods (ERRA, Annual Review 2005 to 2006). The Federal Relief Commission (FRC) of Pakistan Government, Armed Forces, International donors, UN agencies and local NGOs joined hands to undertake the huge operation for delivering emergency relief against challenges such as mountainous terrain, distant and difficult to access communities, changing weather conditions, resource constraint, and overwhelming suffering of the people. On March 31st 2006, the Government of Pakistan officially ended the ‘Relief’ phase and the Federal Relief Commission (FRC) was subsumed into Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority (ERRA). Government of Pakistan, NGOs and international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) performed different rescue, relief and rehabilitation activities during the first year of the 2005 disaster. Relief provided by FRC with assistance from foreign governments, INGOs, NGOs, individuals and corporate sponsors are summarized in Table 1. COPY RIGHT  © 2011 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1727 ijcrb. webs. com INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS Table 1: Joint Relief Delivered to the Affected Population Relief Goods and Services Temporary Shelters to Families Tents Blankets / Quilts Ration( in tons) Medicines (in tons) Field Hospitals Established Field /Mobile Medical Teams Sorties Flown Quantity 385,000 951,790 6,361,090 256,376 3053. 76 65 86 30,334 JUNE 2011 VOL 3, NO 2 Source: ERRA, Annual Review 2005 to 2006 (From October 2005 to March 2006) Empirical studies suggest that nations with greater resources, better awareness and preparedness are more able to restore and move to normality faster than poor and less prepared nations during disasters. According to the Mid-America Earthquake Center, ‘‘the biggest earthquakes in the region (Pakistan India) are yet-to-come’’ (Boyd 2006, p. 1). â€Å"Theoretical studies indicate that the energy stored along the Himalayan arc suggests a high probability of several massive earthquakes of magnitude (greater than) 8. 0 in the future† (Shaheen 2007, p. ) â€Å"Theoretical studies indicate that the energy stored along the Himalayan arc suggests a high probability of several massive earthquakes of magnitude (greater than) 8. 0 in the future† (Shaheen 2007, p. 1). Research on disasters could be used as a tool for creating better preparedness to combat with future disasters. Further, it helps formulate a comprehensive strategy for disaster management. This research study based on Pakistan’s experience and response to disaster 2005 would be of greater importance for other countries facing similar disasters. Objectively, researchers have investigated various aspects of the 2005 earthquake. However, this study sheds light on role, responsibilities and performance of Governmental institutions and Non-governmental organizations during rescue and relief efforts. This study compares performance of the Pakistan government with NGOs with regard to management and distribution of emergency aid to 2005 earthquake victims during and immediately after the disaster. This comparison is based on data obtained from three most affected areas of NWFP (Pakistan) and AJK through a sample survey conducted on earthquake victims in October 2006, on the 1st anniversary of 2005 earthquake. Literature Review Pakistan is prone to frequent disasters that inflicted severe losses to property and lives. More frequent disasters are floods, droughts and earthquakes. However, the history reveals that earthquakes were the worst disasters regarding losses to lives (ERRA, Annual Review 2005 to 2006). In 1950, Pakistan witnessed the first severe flood disaster that claimed 2910 lives and affected more than 10,000 villages. Since then, floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been striking with regular intervals but none of the successive governments could ever devise a comprehensive strategy for disaster management (A Review of DMPS in Pakistan). There was a major earthquake in Quetta, Balochistan, in COPY RIGHT  © 2011 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1728 ijcrb. webs. com INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS JUNE 2011 VOL 3, NO 2 1935 when the entire city was destroyed. From 1974 to 1990, approximately 5669 people were killed due to earthquakes in the Northern Areas (NA), NWFP and Balochistan (A Review of DMPS in Pakistan). A brief history of earthquakes in Pakistan along with intensity and resulting human losses is given in Table 2. Table 2: Details of Earthquakes in Pakistan Date May 31, 1935 November 28, 1945 December 28, 1974 October 8, 2005 October 29, 2008 Magnitude 7. 7. 8 6. 2 7. 6 6. 4 Deaths 30,000 – 60,000 4,000 5,300 80,000 215 Injuries and Destruction Tsunami 17,000 injured 3. 5 million people homeless 120,000 homeless District/Province Ali Jaan, Balochistan Balochistan Hunza, Hazara and Swat Muzaffarabad (AJK) Ziarat District, Quetta Source: www. wikipedia. org. com As Pakistan is in a seismic belt, therefore, it suffers from frequent earthquakes of small magnitudes. Mountain ranges of Koh-e-Suleman, Hind u Kush and Karakorum are significantly vulnerable. The devastation can be immense because of the poor quality of buildings and housing (A Review of DMPS in Pakistan). During the 2005 earthquake a large number of government buildings constructed by the contractors in AJK and Balakot area, collapsed in the first jerk of the quake. This is the overall impression of the people in the earthquake devastated areas that between 30 and 60 per cent of funds for government buildings, including schools, are spoiled by corrupt officials. Contractors habitual of such kickbacks spend less on quality materials resulting in poorly constructed buildings. Therefore, systemic corruption in government construction projects would be directly responsible for the devastating losses of next generation in northern areas of Pakistan (Shaheen, 2008). In addition, there was no adequate crisis management structure in Pakistan prior to the 2005 earthquake and none have any past experience to deal with such severe natural disasters. Although, the army and several NGO groups took the initiative in launching rescue and relief efforts, however, the onerous responsibility of reconstruction and rebuilding rested on the government (Prakash Ouis, 2001). Further, high dependence on natural resources makes communities vulnerable particularly to changes in resource condition (Pomeroy et al. , 2006). Mostly, all-pervasive corruption and abuse of relief aid by Government agencies and bureaucratic style of humanitarian organizations distracts them from the needs of the people they are supposed to assist, in favor of other values that their institutional frameworks dictate (Binini, 2006). This claim was tested by investigating the response to the Pakistan 2005 earthquake and a closer look at data suggests that there was not an optimal match between survivor needs and relief deliveries (Binini, 2006). A certain degree of coordination failure is, of course, inevitable in disasters of this scale. However, Pakistan’s domestic and external political situation made such co-ordination even more problematic and highlighted the need for a bottom up strategy to tap the resources at the local and grass-root levels. Literature represents different strategies adopted by the world by learning from experiences, how to combat with future disasters, how one can better prepare to face less socio-economic and COPY RIGHT  © 2011 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1729 ijcrb. webs. com INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS JUNE 2011 VOL 3, NO 2 human losses. Many countries like Italy adopted insurance policy measures to combat natural catastrophes (Amendola, 2000). This raises the question whether government agencies and NGOs played the required role during relief phase of 2005 earthquake? Did the government or NGOs performed better during provision of relief aid to victims. Whether the international donations and NGO development programs aimed at reducing vulnerability to earthquakes are an appropriate response to the earthquake hazard or not (Shaheen, 2008). Are earthquake victims satisfied that relief provided by Government and NGOs was according to their need and secured dignity during relief disbursement? So did Pakistan learn any lesson? If yes, what policy planning Pakistan adopted for future Disaster Risk Mitigation? These all aspects are required to investigate for better preparedness, mitigation and for future disaster response. The purpose of this research is to investigate the role and performance of government of Pakistan and humanitarian agencies during relief and emergency aid assistance of 2005 earthquake victims. Further to evaluate, comparatively who performed better. This study will be helpful in disaster management planning at government and non-government levels. Typically, this study is unique in its nature and will be an imperative contribution to the body of research concerning disaster management in Pakistan. Methodology and Data collection The primary source of data for this research was field survey conducted in October 2006, immediately after the Pakistan government earthquake emergency relief assistance programs ended. About 500 household heads in the most affected districts (areas) of Pakistan and Kashmir â€Å"Mansehra, Bagh and Muzaffarabad† were contacted to investigate the role and performance of Government agencies and NGOs in various rescue, relief and rehabilitation programs. While survey team couldn’t conduct interviews in fourth most affected district â€Å"Batagram† due to adverse circumstances (i. . cultural, religious and political reasons, at the particular moment). Individual household was the basic sampling unit. â€Å"A household is a group of people in a dwelling unit living together as a family and sharing the same kitchen† (PAUL 2003). In the first stage of the design of the survey, out of nine, three most affected districts were selecte d. In the second stage, 15 most affected union councils were selected (5 UCs in each district). In the third stage, 30 villages or Mohalahs (for urban) were randomly selected. As affected area is consisted of diversified topography, so to find impartial and faultless response urban and rural localities were also considered. Similarly, male and female respondents were selected proportionately to find statistically reliable and significant results. A comprehensive questionnaire containing demographic information of respondents followed by data relating to socio-economic impact of disaster along with opinion questions with regard to the distribution of inflict relief by the government and NGOs were asked to household heads. A household head is defined as the person who makes the major economic, social, and household decisions, irrespective of this individual’s age and gender† (PAUL 2003). Key Questions 1. Comparatively, who performed better during rescue and relief phase of 2005 earthquake, the NGOs or Government of Pakistan? COPY RIGHT  © 2011 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1730 ijcrb. webs. com INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF C ONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS JUNE 2011 VOL 3, NO 2 a. Who provided more relief to the 2005 earthquake victims in the emergency/relief phase? . To what extent 2005 earthquake victims are satisfied with the Government and NGOs’ performance Performance is measured by ‘both’ provision of relief items to affectees and satisfaction level shown by respondents toward Government agencies and NGOs. Relief includes following items; rescue, transportation, shelters, food, bedding, cooking utensils, information and awareness, education, training, money, health facilities that were essentially required soon after disaster to survivors to live with dignity. Whereas variable government includes; Army, ERRA, PERRA, DRU, Local Administration, Federal Government, and other governmental institutions that took part in rescue and relief phase. Moreover, Non-governmental Organizations includes; indigenous NGOs, International NGOs, UN Agencies. Analysis Techniques To analyze the amount of external support provided to the afectees by the government and to test whether the amount of received support was in accordance with their socio-economic conditions, chi-square test of association and Mann-Whitney Test (nonparametric tests) are used. Chi-Squire test is used only to investigate the relationship between affected areas and respondents’ demographic characteristics (occupation, education, sex and locality). Mann-Whitney Test is used to determine if a difference exists between performances of two groups: Government and NGOs. Unlike t-test, Mann-Whitney Test does not require normal distribution of data (MacFarland, 1998). Subsequent analysis is performed by using the SPSS. The nature of the relationship between socio-economic indicators receipt of assistance will be helpful for evaluation of the equitability and performance of the government and NGOs relief assistance efforts during earthquake 2005. In general, there is a positive relationship between the amount of emergency aid received by earthquake victims and their socio-economic conditions. Poor victims, owing to their weak political and economic power, receive much less assistance than rich victims. Results and Discussion Devastation of 2005 earthquake could be portrayed by housing destruction of affected regions. Data represents that 100% living was affected by disaster. In total, 75% people substantiated complete demolition of houses, while remaining 25% claimed partial damage. Table 3 explains the area wise house damage caused by earthquake. Remarkably, data regarding house damage shows approximately similar trends as shown in district profiles prepared by ERRA. Table 3: Destruction of housing by 2005 Earthquake House damage Completely Damaged Partially damaged Not damaged Total Bagh 80. 7% 18. 4% 0. 9% 100% Area wise breakdown Mansehra Muzaffarabad 77. 5% 69. % 22. 0% 30. 1% 0. 6% 0. 00% 100% 100% Total 75. 2% 24. 4% 0. 4% 100% COPY RIGHT  © 2011 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1731 ijcrb. webs. com INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS JUNE 2011 VOL 3, NO 2 Nearly, all the respondents reported that they had received the external aid ‘in any form’, either from governmental agencies, NGOs, INGOs, friends/relatives or from individual p hilanthropists. Collectively, about 85% respondents ranked NGOs and Government agencies topmost helping hands during relief phase. The remaining 15% reported that they seek assistance either from relatives, friends, neighbors, individual philanthropists and they ranked the same at top. The following analysis of the assistance received by victims is based on the response of 85% of respondents who availed some form of assistance. Table 4 shows selected characteristics of the respondents; mainly they were segregated into four occupational groups: farming, services, business, and others. Mountainous geographic location of the area is the reason that only 6. % of the selected population is engaged in farming and 19. 7% in business profession. Moreover, majority of respondents (68%) were employed in services sector (including both public and private services). The analysis based on Chi-square test reveals that there was a significant difference in the occupational characteristics of respondents in all the three sites covered in the present Table 4: Percentage Distribution of Demographic characteristics of the responde nts Characteristics Profession Farming Services Business Others Bagh 5. 4 69. 6 19. 6 5. 4 100 39. 13. 3 31. 9 15 100 25. 2 74. 8 100 55. 3 44. 7 100 Districts Mansehra Muzzaffarabad 11. 7 2. 6 59. 6 74. 7 20. 5 19. 1 8. 2 3. 6 100 100 47. 7 13. 8 23. 0 15. 5 100 22. 2 77. 8 100 52. 6 47. 4 100 46. 2 9. 7 25. 1 19. 0 100 38. 8 61. 2 100 48. 5 51. 5 100 Total 6. 5 68. 1 19. 7 5. 7 100 45. 2 12. 0 25. 9 16. 8 100 29. 7 70. 3 100 51. 6 48. 4 100 X2=18. 490 (df=6; p=0. 005) Education Illiterate 1-5 years 6-10 years Above 10 years X2=5. 531 (df=6; p=0. 478) Locality Urban Rural X2=13. 889 (df=2; p=0. 001) Sex Male Female Total X2=1. 451 (df=2; p=0. 484) study. Analysis indicates greater dependency of the affected area population on non-farming income generation sources. While in Mansehra (NWFP) 11% of respondents disclosed that their major source of income was agriculture which was highest engagement in farming throughout study area. The survey data revealed that sample consisted of 45% illiterate respondents. Further gender analysis shows that illiterate women ratio was significantly higher than male illiterate population i. e. 70% and 30% respectively of total 45%. Table 5 illustrates discriminating behavior of society regarding educational acilities to female population of the area. Chi-Squire test shows highly significant results, that is educational COPY RIGHT  © 2011 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1732 ijcrb. webs. com INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS JUNE 2011 VOL 3, NO 2 level is drastically different between male and female population of selected area. Interestingly, official data regarding gender wise literacy also have approximately similar trends. Table 5: Gender wise breakdown of educational level of respondents (in Percentage) Illiterate 1-5 years Male 30. 64. 9 Female 69. 7 35. 1 Total 100. 0 100. 0 X2=76. 827 (df=3; p=0. 000) Sex Educational Level 6-10 years Above 10 years 64. 8 79. 0 35. 2 21. 0 100. 0 100. 0 Total 51. 6 48. 4 100. 0 The null hypothesis that there is no difference in provision of relief assistance to 2005 earthquake victims by Government and NGOs was tested by using Mann-Whitney test. Significance can be verified by comparing the computed test statistic (e. g. , U) with its critical value. By interpretation of the p (probability) value, it is observed that p= 0. 005, which is smaller than the 0. 05. Comparison of test statistics with its table value and the probability method both suggest the rejection of Null hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference between government-provided relief aid and that of NGOs. Further the higher mean rank for NGOs (518 vs. 467) supports the conclusion that the NGOs provided more relief items in better way to victims of 2005 earthquake than Government of Pakistan. Table 6: Comparison of Relief Support Groups N Mean Rank Government 492 467. 53 Relief Support NGOs 492 517. 47 Total 984 Test Statistics Test Statistic Mann-Whitney U Wilcoxon W Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) Sum of Ranks 230022. 50 254597. 50 Relief Support 108744. 500 230022. 500 -2. 824 0. 005 Evidently performance is directly associated with satisfaction. Satisfaction is persons feeling of pleasure as a result of comparing a product perceived outcome in relation to his/her expectations. Consequently, if the performance exceeds the expectation, the beneficiary is very satisfied. If outcome equals the expectation, the receiver is satisfied. But if the performance falls below the expectation, then the recipient is dissatisfied. In this study Mann-Whitney Wilcoxon test is used to compare satisfaction shown by sufferers toward government and NGOs role during relief program. Test shows extremely significant results. Similar to 1st null hypothesis, 2nd null hypothesis is also significantly rejected, that is, there is no difference in satisfaction shown by victims towards NGOs and Government of Pakistan for relief provision. Further, it explains that NGOs (including both the indigenous and the international) prevailing in Pakistan have played an effective and impartial role in the distribution of relief assistance than did the government organizations. So results show that COPY RIGHT  © 2011 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1733 ijcrb. webs. com INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS JUNE 2011 VOL 3, NO 2 credibility of NGOs bottom-up approach is higher than that of the government based on topdown directives. In so for as performance is concerned, people are more satisfied with the role played by NGOs/INGOs as compared to Government Agencies during the relief phase. Table 7: Comparison of Satisfaction Groups/Satisfaction Government NGOs Total Statistic Mann-Whitney U Wilcoxon W Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) N 492 492 984 Mean Rank 354. 310976 630. 3689024 Sum of Ranks 174478. 5 310141. 5 Test Statistics Satisfaction 53200. 5 174478. 5 -15. 242 0. 000 Conclusion In 2005, Pakistan experienced the most disturbing earthquake in its history. Pakistan government and humanitarian agencies initiated wide range of relief efforts for the survival of victims. This study is an effort to compare the relief d isbursement efforts carried out by the NGOs and the government. Further, it looks at the possible association between socioeconomic characteristics of the disaster victims and the amount of assistance they received from the government and/or from the NGOs. To probe these objectives, this study used a primary data in which 500 household heads of 30 villages of 15 union councils of three districts have been interviewed. The analysis of data indicates that though both, government of Pakistan and NGOs’ played significant role during rescue and relief assistance, the majority of respondents reported that they were more satisfied by the NGOs work compared to government efforts. Further majority of the respondents believed that NGOs performed much better in relief provision than the government of Pakistan. Recognition to NGOs efforts could be due to non-bureaucratic working style, proper need assessment, ensuring victim participation in decision making, acting as per sphere standards while helping the communities. Moreover, wide range of experience in working with effected communities and use of more participatory approach made them more efficient and successful. Respondents’ opinions regarding less efficient role of government could be due to unmet very high and irrational victims’ expectations. Further NGOs are supposed to work in specified area with having fewer responsibilities and more skills. Whereas governments’ working area and responsibilities are spread to all affected population regardless of degree of severity. Moreover, important policy implication of this study is that if government agencies would not handle relief efforts effectively and efficiently than donor agencies may rethink their procedure and channelize future emergency aid and development funding through NGOs or sub-offices. This mistrust has been experienced by government of Pakistan in current flood disaster on both, public and donors’ ends. But optimistically this might lead to COPY RIGHT  © 2011 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1734 ijcrb. webs. com INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS JUNE 2011 VOL 3, NO 2 expansion of NGOs in Pakistan. So government need not only develop institutional and technical skills to cope with future disasters but also consider expansion to NGOs as alternative to mitigate the hazards and strive to strengthen them. COPY RIGHT  © 2011 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1735 ijcrb. webs. com INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS References JUNE 2011 VOL 3, NO 2 Action Aid International (2006), The Evolving UN Cluster Approach in the Aftermath of the Pakistan Earthquake: An NGO Perspective. Action Aid International, London. ADB-WB (2005), Preliminary damages and need assessment—Pakistan 2005 earthquake, prepared by Asian Development Bank and World Bank, Islamabad, Pakistan, November 12, 2005. Amendola, Aniello, 2000, ‘Earthquake Risk Management: A case study for an Italian Region†, International Institute for Applied Systems, A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria. Benini, A. A. et al. , 2006, ‘Survivor Needs or Logistical Convenience? Factors Shaping Decisions to Delive’ Blackwell, doi:10. 1111/j. 0361-3666. 2008. 01065. x Boyd, J. (2006), Preliminary report: Future quakes in Pakistan inevitable, http://www. media. rice. edu/media/NewsBot. asp? MODE=VIEW=8166, Accessed on 23-04-2011 at 17:00. MacFarland, T. W. (1998), ‘Mann-Whitney U-Test’ viewed August 2010. http://www. nyx. net/~tmacfarl/STAT_TUT/mann_whi. ssi Pakistan, Government of (2005), ‘A review of Disaster Management Policies and Systems in Pakistan’ Islamabad. Pakistan, Government of (2006), Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority (ERRA), Annual Review 2005-06. Paul, B. K. 2002, ‘Relief assistance to 1998 flood victims: a comparison of the performance of the government and NGOs’ The Geographical journal, Vol. 169, No. 1, March 2003, pp. 75-89. Pomeroy, R. S, Blake D. Ratner Stephen J. Hall 2006, ‘Coping with disaster: Rehabilitating coastal livelihoods and communities’ Elsevier, Marine Policy 30, PP 786–793. Shaheen, M. A. (2007), Academic Institutions and Libraries of Pakistani Administered Kashmir: A Pre and Post Earthquake Analysis, A Paper read on 73rd IFLA General Conference and Council held on 19-23 August 2007 at Durban, South Africa. Shaheen, M. A. (2008), ‘Earthquake effects on educational institutions and libraries of Azad Kashmir An appraisal’, Emerald, Vol. 57, No. 6, 2008, pp. 449-456. COPY RIGHT  © 2011 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1736 Copyright of Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business is the property of Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. How to cite Role and Performance of Government and Ngos in Relie F, Essay examples

Housing Solution and Housing Issues

Question: Discuss the ways or strategies to improve the quality of life and services on a problem estate? Answer: Introduction In this paper, as a housing management consultant recommends the ways or strategies to improve the quality of life and services on a problem estate managed by Mountclaim Housing Association. The association has called you in to provide a strategy to improve this estate. Mountclaim Housing Association are faced the key issues these are the level of income collection is low, the quality of repairs and maintenance is low, and tenant representatives say that tenants are scared to go out at night because there are kids hanging around all the time. This paper address these key issues through recommend a strategy to improve the quality of services to the estate, including improvements in collection of rent, reduction in anti-social behaviour and improved repairs and maintenance services. The allocation of properties should also be included. Recommendations Mountclaim Housing Association perceives that powerful occupancy and bequest administration is an essential piece of the landowner administrations procurement we convey to inhabitants and occupants of the Borough. Mountclaim Housing Association ought to be updated Tenancy and Estate Management Strategy 2015-2018 to face the key tested. Occupancy and domain administration is not just about caring for structures and the physical environment; it is likewise about guaranteeing our tenures are successfully overseen and about giving and masterminding counsel, backing and support to those occupants and inhabitants who need it (Wood, 2003). The key point of this system is to convey magnificence in tenure and bequest administration including hostile to social conduct through enhancing existing administrations and the nature of our lodging homes. This method diagrams the developing vision of our tenure and home administration benefit through the following three years. The archive is liable to change as it is impacted by inhabitants, accomplices, partners and business issues. This procedure will address the key occupancy and home administration issues that have been recognized as needs by our inhabitants, leaseholders and different occupants. It will add to our point of making practical groups and will add to the Council's Strategic Improvement Plan. Basildon Borough Council perceives that powerful administration of our occupancies and neighborhoods will guarantee the long haul supportability of homes and groups (Jowsey, 2014). In the Tenancy and Estate Management Strategy, Mountclaim Housing Association should be used the software to improve rent collection. For example, it should use Buildiums software that is all-in-one property management software. In recent times, more than 10,000 customers use Buildium to manage over three-quarters-of-a-million units. Buildiums software helps Mountclaim Housing Association to properly manage streamline daily tasks in the rent, vacancy, and maintenance cycles (Virginia Richard, 2001). In recent times, Mountclaim Housing Association performance has decline from 55% to 43%, so this Tenancy and Estate Management Strategy through use the property management software would be beneficial of it to enhance revenue. The property management software can improve the financial capability of the organization through able it to collect revenue securely from all customers at less time. According to Audit Commision (2002) report, a small reduction on the percentage of rent collection will have a great impact on the service provision. So, that the use of property management software can help Mountclaim Housing Association to collect rent more fast and accurately, which help it to maintain their services. It can also save the money and time of Mountclaim Housing Association, so it able to provide best services of the more than 5,700 homes per year. Mountclaim Housing Association ought to be focused on building up our Tenancy and Estate Management Strategy and going with administrations through colossal interview with administration clients and key partners. This dedication is reflected inside of our marketable strategy and occupant investment minimal. We utilize a scope of systems to get input, including bequest reviews, natural champions, group boards, occupant monitors, secret shopping, review reactions and administration change bunches (Williamson, Fearon Kelly, 2014). This empowers us to tailor administration conveyance and upgrades to mirror the needs of individual neighborhoods, homes or roads, whilst keeping up spotlight on manageability of groups and tenures. The route in which Mountclaim Housing Association ought to oversee Council tenures and lodging domains has a critical effect on every nearby occupant and this method sets out how we mean to accomplish a serene, sheltered and great quality living environment for all inhabitants (McCulloch, 2012). Huge advancement has been made in enhancing the nature of our administrations and client concentrate around occupancy and home administration administrations. Mountclaim Housing Association ought to have built up our staff to guarantee that they are prepared to convey fantastic administrations, and building up two expert groups that arrangement with all matters identifying with Tenancy and Estate Management and Anti-social Behavior. Tenancy and Estate Management Plan: Tenancy and Estate Management is a term used to portray an extensive variety of administrations identifying with the administration of Council tenures and the encompassing neighborhoods. It covers a different scope of issues that are described in this paragraph. It providing counsel and help to each of the inhabitants with respect to the rights and obligations contained inside of their tenure assertion. It ensuring that inhabitants conform to their occupancy assentions and where they are not, making proper move to guarantee that they do, including making authorization move. It dealing with against social conduct, despise wrongdoing and residential misuse on our lodging domains, where important, in association with different organizations and in accordance with the needs of the Basildon Community Safety Partnership. Moreover, it providing backing and guidance to each of the inhabitants however especially new and defenseless occupants and guaranteein g fitting tenure sustainment backing is set up for those that oblige it. (Ihuah Eaton, 2013). This plan should be conducting tenure surveys to guarantee there are no abnormalities in our occupancies and where there are, working with Housing Fraud and different organizations to make fitting move. It should be dealing with deserted properties and unlawful subletting. It providing exhortation and support on tenure matters, e.g. progressions, assignments, shared trades and name changes. It should be undertaking standard domain investigations with inhabitants, accomplices and builders to distinguish and cure any imperfections on our lodging domains, for example, vandalism, shared repairs, litter, junk and congested trees. It should be working nearly with Operational Services to arrangement successfully with issues, for example, fly tipping, graffiti, litter and relinquished vehicles. In addition, this plan should be ensuring mutual zones are kept clean, clean and safe. It should be delivering an exhaustive cleaning administration in association with Pinnacle and checking execution of the agreement. It should be developing and actualizing home activity arranges and recognizing hotspot ranges for development. It should be delivering natural plans and Neighborhood Pride activities including a system of renovating drying and deny ranges all through the Borough and creating reusing activities on our bequests. Key Objective: It is imperative that Mountclaim Housing Association keep on building and enhance the magnificent administrations that we effectively convey (Williamson, Fearon Kelly, 2014). This methodology and going hand in hand with activity arrangement empowers us to give a reasonable concentrate on zones of further change that have been recognized as key issues by our occupants and different partners. These are the main 15 key objectives of this strategy: 1. To bolster conveyance of our Business Plan 2015-17 and to be an Excellent Housing Service for nearby individuals.2. To guarantee we meet our statutory commitments in connection to tenure and home administration including the way we oversee against social conduct.3. To enhance the security of our groups and diminish occurrences of hostile to social conduct.4. To enhance backing to casualties and witnesses of hostile to social conduct.5. To reduce incidents of occupancy extortion and to act quickly where this is distinguished.6. To enhance consumer loyalty with the tenure and home administration administrations we give. (Bright Dixie, 2014)7. To give high caliber, steady and open tenure and home administration benefits that are proactive, delicate, proficient, responsive, adaptable, responsible and reasonable.8. To give advanced offices on our domains and guarantee bequests and squares are clean and clean.9. To guarantee we consistently look for and use subsidizing sources and orga nization attempting to accomplish results that advantages the more extensive group.10. To guarantee that the assets that are accessible are centered on the needs recognized by key partners.11. To guarantee the administrations we convey give worth to cash.12. To enhance execution administration over the administration and the utilization of administration level understandings.13.To guarantee compelling instruments are set up for inhabitants to be counseled on changes that influence them and that they have the chance to give criticism that will be contemplated.14. To build inhabitant contribution and strengthening to empower inhabitants to settle on choices about their group especially in connection to use of the Environmental Champions Budget. (Ihuah Eaton, 2013)15. To enhance the techniques and the assortment of ways that inhabitants can draw in with Landlord Services in connection to tenure and home administration, for example, consistent domain walkabouts Delivering the Strategy: Mountclaim Housing Association ought to be perceived that the effective execution of this technique won't be accomplished in segregation and is subordinate upon fruitful working with nearby inhabitants, other Council divisions and our accomplices. We will work with accomplices to secure an all encompassing way to deal with tenure and bequest administration and wherever conceivable we will share assets to decrease our expenses. It ought to be re-organized our specialty to make authority groups, devoted to giving top notch occupancy and bequest administration administrations including the powerful administration of against social conduct (Byrne, Jackson Lee, 2013). It will guarantee that all our staff gets the fundamental bolster and preparing to empower them to completely meet the prerequisites of their part. These pro groups will be instrumental in guaranteeing the effective usage of this system. Mount claim Housing Association has an obligation to protect youngsters and defenseless grown-ups and we will follow our concurred approaches and strategies in doing as such. It will likewise routinely report any protecting concerns to the pertinent offices as suitable including Adult Social Care, Children's Services and the Child Protection Unit. It will add to an activity arrangement which will be evaluated yearly and observed quarterly to guarantee it meet the wanted results of this system (Hawkey, Webb Winskel, 2013). Tenancy and Estate Management Team: The group manages a mixture of tenure administration issues including progressions, assignments, common trades and name changes to the occupancy as per Council approach. It do a post tenure audit four weeks after the occupancy starts to guarantee that are occupants are accepting the proper help and backing in their new homes and they are mindful of their obligations. It has a project of occupancy surveys and embraces 20% of these every annum with the goal that we have surveyed each tenure over a five year period (Pottinger Tanton, 2014). Notwithstanding this it embraces audits on solicitation or where there are issues recognized that need further examination. These audits are done by our Tenancy and Estate Management Officers and guarantee enlisted inhabitants are still in occupation. This helps us to rapidly recognize lodging misrepresentation and ensures every one of our occupants and imminent inhabitants by guaranteeing the framework is not mishandled (Lawrence Dandy, 2014). The occupancy audits likewise empower us to examine and prompt occupants on issues they may have that may influence their occupancies. The group additionally signpost occupants to different associations for bolster if needed. The group likewise bargains a scope of home administration issues including, estate Inspections and walkabouts; reporting environmental defects such as graffiti or repairs; identifying areas for improvement; planning queries; right to buy checks; block inspections for cleaning; monitoring of SLAs, Contract Management of the universal cleaning contract (Adams, 2014). It has a group of three General Assistants who help to battle the issue of refuse dumping on our bequests and they likewise do minor repairs on our protected lodging plans. They find themselves able to give a quick reaction to issues of worry that has been raised by occupants (Virginia Richard, 2001). In addition, ABS Partners Real Estate, LLC that is a real estate services company that provides landlord and tenant representation services in New York also developed or maintain tenancy and estate management team to successfully implemented Tenancy and Estate Management Strategy. Tenancy and estate management team is the essential need to successful implement nd achieves the objectives of goals of Tenancy and Estate Management Strategy. Tenancy and estate management team helps real estate firms to generate their revenue and improve services (Jowsey, 2014). Anti-Social Behaviour (ASB) Team: The Anti-social Behavior Team are perpetrated to making positive move in conjunction with our accomplices, to manage all types of hostile to social conduct including disdain wrongdoing and household ill-use, independent of residency. Our approaches for handling hostile to social conduct completely bolster this technique. The ASB Manager is the vital lead for against social conduct in the Borough and speaks to Landlord Services on the Basildon Community Safety Partnership. We work together at an operational level through multi office boards and tasking gatherings and seat the month to month Problem Solving Group Meetings. The motivation behind these gatherings is to encourage a multi organization reaction to lessening and anticipating hostile to social conduct and enhancing nearby neighborhoods by using a critical thinking methodology (Ming Yip, 2001). The group comprises of ASB Officers, Neighborhood Nuisance Officers and Community Wardens. Reported cases are ordered by reality and multifaceted nature and managed appropriately. Where ASB does happen, it will deliver issues rapidly to keep the issue from rising. It has a scope of apparatuses accessible to handle an extensive variety of against social conduct. It will guarantee our staff are completely prepared and have the essential information and abilities to utilize these devices adequately to ensure groups (Wood, 2003). Residents: It has secured various administrations change bunches over a scope of administrations which inhabitants, leaseholders and other intrigued inhabitants go to. Occupants are engaged and urged to get included through a scope of alternatives and our administration gauges were produced in discussion with administration clients. Each of these gatherings has Terms of Reference which are definite in the Tenant Compact (Wysocki, 2004). Community Safety Team: The Crime and Disorder Act 1998 put an obligation on nearby organizations to cooperate in organization to decrease wrongdoing and issue in their neighborhood. The Community Safety Team is key individuals from the Mountclaim Housing Association Community Safety Partnership and work with different offices to execute methodologies and activity arrangements to keep on lessening wrongdoing, issue and hostile to social conduct (Lester, 2006). It contributes to initiatives such as the Community Safety Action Zone and the annual Together against Crime events. Conclusion On the basis of the above discussion, it can be concluded that Mountclaim Housing Association should be updated Tenancy and Estate Management Strategy to face the current challenges and provide the best services of the customers or residential at low price. Tenancy and Estate Management Strategy would be beneficial of Mountclaim Housing Association to improve the quality of life and services. Moreover, through updated Tenancy and Estate Management Strategy, Mountclaim Housing Association would able to improve income collection of rent, reduction in anti-social behavior, improved repairs and maintenance services that enhance quality of services to the estate. References Adams, D. (2014) Growth, structure and priorities of the UK real estate development industry: the longstanding division between commercial and residential developers. International Approaches to Real Estate Development, 46. Bright, S., Dixie, H. (2014) Evidence of green leases in England and Wales. International Journal of Law in the Built Environment, 6(1/2), pp. 6-20. Byrne, P., Jackson, C., Lee, S. (2013) Bias or rationality? The case of UK commercial real estate investment. Journal of european real estate research, 6(1), pp. 6-33. Hawkey, D., Webb, J., Winskel, M. (2013) Organisation and governance of urban energy systems: district heating and cooling in the UK. Journal of Cleaner Production, 50, pp. 22-31. Ihuah, P. W., Eaton, D. (2013) A framework for the sustainable management of social (public) housing estates in nigeria: A pilot study. RICS COBRA. Jowsey, E. (2014) Real Estate Concepts: A Handbook. UK: Routledge. Lawrence, A., Dandy, N. (2014) Private landowners approaches to planting and managing forests in the UK: What's the evidence?. Land Use Policy, 36, pp. 351-360. Lester, A. (2006) Project Management, Planning and Control: Managing Engineering, Construction and Manufacturing Projects to PMI, APM and BSI Standards. UK: Butterworth-Heinemann. McCulloch, J. (2012) The UK Park Trust Model: Nene Park Trust, Peterborough. Australasian Parks and Leisure, 15(2), p.26. Ming Yip, N. (2001)Tenant participation and the management of public housing-The Estate Management Advisory Committee of Hong Kong. Property Management, 19(1), pp.10-18. Pottinger, G., Tanton, A. (2014) Flooding and UK commercial property investment: what is the risk?. Qualitative Research in Financial Markets, 6(2), pp. 211-226. Virginia, G. A., Richard, B. (2001) Corporate real estate management in the retail sector: investigation of current strategy and structure. Journal of Real Estate Research, 22(1), 107-128. Williamson, C., Fearon, D., Kelly, K. (2014) 12 Property asset management. Real Estate Concepts: A Handbook, 281. Wood, M. (2003) A balancing act? Tenure diversification in Australia and the UK. Urban Policy and Research, 21(1), pp. 45-56. Wysocki, R.K. (2004) Project Management Process Improvement. UK: Artech House.

Parental Estrangement Essays - Family, Parenting, Human Development

Parental Estrangement Estranged children The difference between an estranged child and an alienated child is that an estranged child has grown apart from the parent for reasons that are, to be blunt, reasonable, and realistic. An estranged child is either absolutely ambivalent about the other parent or enraged by the other parent. These feelings are, however, justified by the child's experience of the separation or by the child's experience of that parent. A parent who leaves the family home, enters a new relationship, and neglects time with their children and dismisses the harm done to their children is likely to become "estranged" from them. It is fair to say that no one responds positively to poor treatment, least of all children. Estrangement results from a parent behaving badly toward his/her children which, in return causes the children to cut off contact. It isn't uncommon for a parent who is estranged from his/her children to blame the other parent of parental alienation. It is easier to blame others for bad behaviour than to accept and acknowledge bad behaviour. When estrangement occurs, the justification is usually very understandable, troubling, and valid. The departing grown child often has been very badly psychologically emotionally damaged in the relationship. Here are some of the most common root problems why parental estrangement occurs. Divorce: Following a divorce, some children reject one parent, limit contact, or show extreme reluctance to be with the parent. Remarriage: Parent's remarriage may also cause tension. It can provoke or exacerbate unwarranted rejection. Lack of routine: If there is no routine or schedule in place the child may feel anxious, children need routines to help them feel safe. Personality Disorders: Many parents are difficult or overbearing, but some parents are too toxic to be around especially narcissist parents. They don't see their own behaviour as playing a role in the problem; they feel entitled to behave badly with no repercussions. Intolerance: children are going to make decisions that parents may not necessarily agree with. Parental estrangement occurs when parents fail to understand their children, never willing to look at situation from their children's point of view. Constant humiliation before others: Parents unaware/intentionally made their children to feel that s/he is good for nothing'; there is no regard for his/her dignity and sentiments. Priorities and Time. These are people who go weeks at a time without contacting their children because they are wrapped up in their career life. They don't understand why their children aren't waiting with arms wide open when they do find time to fit them into their schedule. Unresolved conflicts. Unhealthy conflict management create a basis for conflict to occur again. Recurring family arguments during significant holidays could deteriorate parents-child relationships leading to minimal contacts in the future. Witnessing violence committed by that parent against the other parent Being the victim of abuse from that parent The parent's persistently immature and self-centred behaviour The parent's unduly rigid and restrictive parenting style The parent's own psychological or psychiatric issues. Behaviours Common to an Estranged Parent: The parent who is estranged from a child due to his/her own bad treatment of the child has a "wait and see" attitude. They don't pursue a relationship with the child because in their mind the child is the one responsible for mending the relationship. The estranged parent will find it hard or impossible to view the situation from their child's perspective. They don't see their own behaviour as playing a role in the problem; they feel entitled to behave badly with no repercussions. These parents won't commit to a routine to see their child, they fit the child in when they have spare time rather fit their life around the child. These are people who go weeks at a time without contacting their children because they are wrapped up in a new relationship, focusing more on their career, spending time with the other man/woman or busy building a new life. They don't understand why their children aren't waiting with open arms when they do find time to fit them into their schedule. A checklist for parents when thinking about their estranged child: Have you asked your child what they honestly feel is the problem? Are you really listening to what my child is telling you? Is there a kernel of truth to any of what your child feels is wrong in your

Study Guide Exam 1 fin 317 Essay

Study Guide Exam 1 fin 317 Essay Study Guide Exam 1 fin 317 Essay Study Guide Exam 1: FIN 317 PPSet 1: ïÆ'˜ï€  List the four steps of the traditional risk management process. 1. Identify risk 2. Evaluate risk 3. Select a RM for each risk a. Risk avoidance b. Loss control c. Risk retention d. Risk transfer 4. Implement and review ïÆ'˜ï€  Understand Evolution of Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) from Traditional Risk Management (TRM) at a very simple level. Enterprise Risk Management - ERM - It considers all risks simultaneously and manages risk in a holistic or enterprise-wide (and risk-wide) context ïÆ'˜ï€  Where does insurance fit into the Risk Management Process? At the base of the financial pyramid ïÆ'˜ï€  Understand parts of the Personal Financial Planning Pyramid. Covers life, health , loss of income and property-liability income Wealth distribution wealth accumulation risk management (protection) Wealth accumulation: Speculation: investments like futures and commodities and real estate Growth and diversification: investments like bonds and stocks Savings and accumulation: regular savings and ownership of your house and education Risk management: Life, health, disability , long term care, property , liability insurance ïÆ'˜ï€  What professional exams is this course useful in preparing you for? Chartered Property Casualty Underwriter (CPCU) exams Associate in Risk Management (ARM) exams Certified Financial Planner (CFP) exams Chartered Life Underwriter (CLU) exams ïÆ'˜ï€  What is Gamma Iota Sigma (GIS)? An international business fraternity Promotes student interest in insurance, risk management, and actuarial science A place for students to gain leadership experience Prepares students for employment in the insurance and risk management professions. Provides networking opportunities for students to meet with various insurance and risk management professionals. PPSet 2: ïÆ'˜ï€  Risk Definitions Risk – uncertainty concerning loss, 2 types speculative and pure. ïÆ'˜ï€  Understand different classes of risk: pure, speculative, subjective, objective, diversifiable, and un-diversifiable Pure – Exists when there is uncertainty as to whether loss will occur Two possibilities: loss or no loss. Home and car, fire and flood risk Speculative – Exists when there is uncertainty about an event that can produce either a profit or a loss. investment risk, reputational risk, strategic risk Subjective – refers to the mental state of an individual who experiences doubt or worry as to the outcome of a given event It is essentially the psychological uncertainty that arises from an individual’s mental attitude or state of mind Objective – differs from subjective risk in the sense that it is more precisely observable and therefore measurable Often measured as probable variation around expected loss. Diversifiable – Un-Diversifiable - ïÆ'˜ï€  In general, what kinds of risk are insurable? Pure objective risks Risks covered: possibility that one of these perils may interrupt the individual’s income or cause medical expenses. Perils: death accidents and sickness living too long unemployment ïÆ'˜ï€  What are the Two Main Categories of Insurable Risks? Property can include all your land, house, apartment, contents (your stuff), car and so on. Liability is coverage for law suits you or your property may cause to others. When you insure your home this is how the property policy is layed out. Everything is a percentage of the dwelling or structure so what you have for a property limit on the structure affects everything else. Any you have deductibles you have to pay in a loss and the company wants you to insure close to the value and cost to rebuild that is co insurance usually about 80% or greater of the home’s cost to rebuild is required. Coverage A - Dwelling Coverage B – Other Structures 10% of A Coverage C – Contents 50% to 70% of A Coverage D – Loss of Use 10% of A Coverage E - Liability Coverage F – Medical payments Property liability risk - hazards such as wet roads, oily rags or things that might lead to a peril or loss

ET Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

ET - Essay Example In this scenario, the link between BA and strategy is coordinated. Here the BA function is purely reactive and there is no feedback procedure from BA to strategy. Method competencies help a business analyst to keep the tool kit in order. He or she should be able to deliver multiple information in same data and should be able to visualize the information as the user. Answer. A data warehouse provides an organization with data which is consistent, integrated and valid. It ensures the collection of data from its source. Data warehouse retains the desired key features and provides data for creating reports. Answer. A company can collect source data either by collecting primary data or secondary data. The data collected for the first time is called the primary data. A primary data when further used becomes secondary data. A secondary data is collected from already collected data.The data sources for a company can be classified as: 1.Data generating source system- A data generating source system specifies which systems which create data for the first time and which don’t. Some examples of data generating source systems are billing systems, Reminder systems, Debt collection systems, CRM systems, and Product and consumption information. 2. Source system -When a data generated for the first time is saved, it becomes the source system for data warehouse. Data in the warehouse comes from primary sources and is saved on the basis of organizations rules and requirements. Based on the data warehouse information a large number of analysis and business processes are carried. 1. Establishment of information wheel- In order to provide the right information to the right people at the right time, data is condensed into information and knowledge. This is called information wheel. An information wheel summarizes the knowledge and information. 2. Creating Synergies between Information Wheels- The BICC must maintain the information wheels. The BICC

Case Study analysis for Marketing Communications Essay

Case Study analysis for Marketing Communications - Essay Example Companies in business areas such as beer and cider as well as other beverages benefit from sponsorship of sports personalities, clubs and events as these are opportunities for highlighting the spirit of entertainment and social celebrations, which is one of the intrinsic values of the product. The company is launching its advertising campaign on a rolling regional basis, starting from Southern London England followed by Scotland. However, when entering a market as UK, which is not very large in its size, it may be more effective to plan a national campaign, which will utilize national TV, and Press backed by outdoor advertising. The largest poster may be an effective means of attracting attention but the exposure level of the location is limited to those who are traveling via Heathrow airport to Ireland. The cost effectiveness per exposure may question the effectiveness of this advertising tool. The product positioning currently being conveyed by the campaign focuses on the product’s naturalness, tradition and heritage. Although these aspects appealed to the nationalistic Irish public, it may not be an effective positioning to the British. The company to adopt the â€Å"Pint Over Ice† concept combined with the naturalness aspect of the C&C’s product. The key message should be â€Å"Pint Over Ice† which targets the popularity of serving beverages in draught form in UK. The concept of â€Å"Pint On Ice† should be promoted as an integrated message through TV Ads, Press, Bill Boards as well as on location promotions with serving demonstrations. As the key challenge is to change the image of the cider product in UK public’s mind, the marketing communications focus has to be on above the line TV and press advertising conveying the premium image. The company should extend its advertising activities to pub level with Point of Sales material and promotions to add excitement. By providing branded product premiums such as caps, key tags

Womens role in Chinese film Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Womens role in Chinese film - Movie Review Example One such film is Ju Dou, which was originally produced in 1990 (Zeng 75). The film features typical Chinese culture and elements especially the ancient ones. While the film has multiple themes, one of the most evident themes is the role of women. The main character, Ju Dou, is a typical Chinese woman who brings out the roles that Chinese women played in the 1920s, which is time setting of the film (Singh 4). Apparently, Ju Dou plays multiple roles including being a wife, a mother, an aunt, and a widower. However, her character in the film reveals the underlying roles of women including positive and negative ones. One of the main roles of women in Ju Dou is being wives. As the film begins, Ju Dou is made wife to an old man, Tianqing’s uncle. Before her marriage, the old uncle had two other wives who had already died. This shows that women are presented as wives. The fact that the old uncle would marry each time the wife died emphasizes the role of the woman as the wife. However, it is important to note that the role of the woman as a wife as depicted in the film is quite diverse. First, the woman plays the role of giving birth. The old uncle makes it clear in the film that he bought Ju Dou purposely for her to give him a son. His previous wives had died without giving him a son. So, he was desperate to get another wife who would give him the son. This role of the woman as child bearer is also evident when people make fun of Tianqing to get a woman who would bear him a son during the celebration party of Ju Dou’s newborn son. When Ju Dou finally bears a son, she becomes a darling of many. The old uncle is so excited that he starts treating her well and even organizes a celebration for her. Second, women play the role of sex objects for men’s pleasure. Tianqing’s uncle actually makes it clear to Ju Dou that he bought her and therefore he has all the

Histamine Stimulated Small Intestine

Histamine Stimulated Small Intestine The longitudinal smooth muscle of the guinea-pig ileum small intestine contracts in response to acetylcholine. These contractions can be reduced by the application of adenosine and related compounds. The guinea-pig ileum is innervated by the enteric, sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic and enteric fibres release acetylcholine which acts on muscarinic receptors. The action of adenosine and its receptor antagonists can be assessed by comparing electrically induced contractions via electrical field stimulation and histamine induced contractions. Electrical field stimulation contractions cause presynaptic release of acetylcholine to produce contractions where as the histamine induced contractions cause postsynaptic contractile responses. Throughout this study adenosine and its receptor antagonist actions will be investigated and compared using electrical field stimulation and histamine. The contraction of the gut In gastrointestinal smooth muscles, researches show that there are two types of muscarinic receptors types that are present as targets to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Okamoto et al., 2002).Acetylcholine and its derivatives produce contractions by activating muscarinic receptors. The muscarinic receptors types are known as M2 and M3. Binding Studies have portrayed that the number of M2 receptors is greater than that of the M3 receptors however functional studies have shown that M3 muscarinic receptors play a fundamental role in mediating the contractile response (Eglen et al., 1996) and the functional role of M2 exists as unclear (Clague et al., 1985). The M3 receptor is coupled with G proteins, causing activation of phospholipase C and formation of inositol trisphosphate and diacylglycerol, which are expected to contribute in muscarinic receptor mediated smooth muscle contractions (Unno et al., 2005). They also mediate relaxation due to the release of nitric oxide from neighbo uring endothelial cells. M3 receptors in visceral smooth muscle contribute to the smooth muscle stimulating effect of muscarinic agonists. However the muscarinic receptor most abundant in the ileum is the M2 which cause an indirect contraction of the guinea-pig ileum by preventing the relaxing effect of drugs (Ehlert and Thomas, 1995). Both muscarinic receptor subtypes are activated by acetylcholine and produce a contractile response; however they vary in their transduction mechanisms and signalling pathways. Adenosine Adenosine has numerous diverse roles in normal physiology; such roles include promoting/maintaining sleep, regulating state of encouragement as well as local neuronal excitability and coupling cerebral blood flow to energy demand (Dunwiddie and Masino, 2001). It exists free in the cytosol of all cells and is transported in and out of all cells mainly using a membrane transporter(Rang et al., 2007). Under normal conditions, adenosine is formed intracellularly as well as extracellularly (Fredholm et al., 2001). ATP is stored in vesicles and released by exocytosis. It is also available in the cytosol of cells and is taken up and released via a specific membrane transporter. Released ATP and ADP are rapidly converted to adenosine by the action of tissue nucleotides. Studies have shown that there are pathways that contribute to adenosine formation, a) by the action of adenylate kinase and cystolic 5-nucleotidase, b) formation from hydrolysis of adenosine 3, 5 phosphate and c) formation by the action of S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH) hydrolase. The pharmacological effects of adenosine include smooth muscle relaxation and inhibition of nerve activity, lipolysis and platelet aggregation(Daly et al., 1983). There is evidence that stimulation or inhibition is of adenylate cyclise is involved in adenosine action and therefore it has been concluded that adenosine is mediated by cyclic AMP. Based on its ability to inhibit cell function and thus minimise the metabolic requirements of cells, one of its functions may be as a protective agent released when tissue integrity is threatened. Adenosine exerts its physiological actions activation of a number of specific cell surface receptors. There are four different adenosine receptors known as A1, A2A, A2B, and A3. Some characteristics of these receptors are presented in Figure 1a. These subtypes have been distinguished on the basis of their agonist and antagonist selectivity. They belong to the G protein-coupled receptors. Mechanism of Adenosine action Adenosine A1 receptors are negatively coupled to the inhibition of adenylate cyclase, however they can act through other pathways such as stimulation of phospholipase C, activation of potassium channels and inhibition of N-type calcium channels (Zizzo et al., 2009). A1 receptors are coupled to Gi and G0 proteins and lead to inhibition of adenylate cyclase and consequently cause a decrease in cAMP (Ranjit, 2008). Adenosine A2A and A2B are coupled for activation of adenylate cyclise whereas A3 receptors have been shown to stimulate phospholipase C and D, to inhibit adenylate cyclase and to activate ATP sensitive potassium channel (Ralevic and Burnstock, 1998). Activation of these receptors require comparatively high amounts of adenosine. A2A and A2B receptors have a high and a low affinity for adenosine respectively. Receptor Subtype A1 A2A A2B A3 Transduction mechanism Inhibits adenylyl cyclase Activates adenylyl cyclase Activates adenylyl cyclase Inhibits adenylyl cyclase Primary distribution Brain (cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus). Dorsal horn of spinal cord. Eye, adrenal gland, atria Spleen, thymus, leukocytes, blood platelets. Straitopallidal GABAergic neurons, olfactory bulb Caecum, colon, bladder Testis, mast cells Tissue functions Antinociception, Hypothermia. Sedation, Sleep, Inhibition of lipolysis, Cardio and neuroprotection Reflex tachycardia, vasodilation, inhibition of platelet aggregation, sleep protection against ischemia Relaxation of vascular and intestinal smooth muscle, cytokine production, inhibition of cell proliferation Mast cell degranulation, coronary vasodilation and protection from reperfusion Selective antagonists DPCPX PSB 36 SCH 58261 PSB 1115 potassium salt MRS 3777 hemioxalate Figure 1a: Summary of adenosine receptors. Adenosine and the enteric functions of the Gut The enteric nervous system (ENS) consists of a compilation of neurons in the gastrointestinal nervous system which is capable of functioning independently of the central nervous system. It moderates motility, secretion, microcirculation, inflammatory and immune responses of the gastrointestinal tract (Altaf and Sood, 2008). The ENS is composed of extrinsic, which consists of parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions and the intrinsic component which encloses neurons. Intestinal functions results from an interaction between the ENS, smooth muscle and the mucosal/immune system. The network is regulated by several mediators; however there is consolidating evidence that adenosine is a significant regulating agent (Bueno, 2000) (Wood, 2004). Studies show that in the small intestine adenosine and adenosine derivatives where found to inhibit cholinergic transmission in guinea-pigs via a prejunctional action on neurotransmitter release (Gustafsson et al., 1978). The action of the A1 receptor s allowed mediation of the inhibitory action of adenosine in the cholinergic transmission(Shinozuka et al., 1985) of motor neurones innervating circular and longitudinal smooth muscle however A2A receptors have been reported to reduce the cholinergic motor responses(Gustafsson et al., 1985a; Gustafsson et al., 1985b). Histamine Histamine has a role as a primary transmitter or neuromodulator and it is widely distributed within mammalian tissues. (Izzo et al., 1998). Histamine is a vasoactive substance to be identified in the body which can rapidly metabolise and holds properties of being highly polar and not diffusing readily across cell membranes or the blood-brain barrier. It is stored in mast cells and basophils of blood and has two receptors known as H1 and H2. The release of histamine could cause changes in the cardiovascular system and induce anaphylactic shock. Histamine has been shown to induce gastric acid secretion through the H2 receptors linked to cyclic AMP production in oxyntic cells. Researches show that gastric cells of the guinea-pig may have a class of binding sites for histamine which shows no relationship to adenylate cyclase and the H2 receptor. Histamine creates a spasmogenic effect on the intestine that results from H1 receptor stimulation(Guy A. and Settipane, 1988-1989). There are three histamine subtypes known as H1, H2 AND H3 and all three have been identified to be present in the guinea pig small intestine. Studies show that H1 receptor subtypes mediate the contraction of the longitudinal muscle in the small intestine (Izzo et al., 1998). However researchers also state that the effect of histamine is predominantly due to the interaction with H1 receptors located on smooth muscle cells and moderately due to the interaction H2 receptors present on myenteric plexus interneurones (Bauer and Matusak, 1988). AIMS The aim is to confirm the prejunctional action of adenosine and examine whether adenosine has the additional ability to relax the smooth muscle directly. The project will use histamine to contract the smooth muscle and the objective is to find out whether adenosine can reduce these contractions and if so is the concentration range similar to that needed to inhibit the contractions to the electrical field-stimulation? It will also be investigated what adenosine receptor subtype is involved (A1, A2A, A2B, A3 identified using selective antagonists). METHOD Animals and preparation of tissue Dunkin Hartley guinea-pigs (250g +) of male sex that had previously been fed Harlan 2040, the guinea-pig diet and ad lib filtered tap water, were obtained from Harlan UK. They were group housed and provided with grade 6 woodchip and hay bedding. Their enrichment consisted of plastic and cardboard fun tunnels, plastic igloos and gnawing blocks. Furthermore they were kept at room temperatures of 19-23 °C and at room humidity of 45-65%. They were provided with 12 hours light and 12 hours of dark lighting. The guinea-pigs were stunned by a blow to the head and sacrificed by exsanguination. Two segments of 3cm length were removed from the distal part of the small intestine, for each tissue the ends were tied with cotton threads to the tissue holder and then suspended in 20ml organ baths containing Krebs solution (composition in mM: NaCl, 118; NaHCO3, 25; Glucose, 11; KCl, 4.7; CACl2, 2.5; KH2PO4, 1.18; MgSO4, 1.18). This was aerated with 95% O2 and 5% CO2 and maintained at 37 °C. The tissues were left for 30minutes to equilibrate under a resting tension of 1g before starting the stimulation. Experimental protocol The organ baths were equipped with parallel electrodes which allowed electrical field stimulation to be transmitted at a frequency of 0.1Hz, 40V, 0.5ms pulse duration. Contractions of the ileum were measured with isometric transducers (ADInstruments Force Transducers), amplified and recorded onto a data capture system (Lab Charts on the PC). The tissues were allowed to stabilise in the organ baths in order to reach steady contractions. Figure 1b represents the experimental set up. C:UsersHomeDocumentsDSC00308.JPG Figure 1b shows the laboratory designed set up for the experiment, with a set of two organ baths. There were several parts (a-e) to the experiments to be carried out on the ileum. n is the number of ileum used throughout the experiment n=18. The number of experiments carried out on the ileum was 56. Effect of Adenosine-the experiment consisted of stimulating the tissues continuously with electrical field stimulation and adding cumulative concentrations of adenosine (10-11M 10-4M) to the organ baths and the responses were recorded. Effect of Histamine- the tissues were stimulated with histamine, cumulative concentrations of histamine (10-11M 10-4M) were added to the organ bath and responses were measured. The concentration 110-6M gave the maximum response and a steady contraction, it was used to contract the tissue with adenosine. Effect of Adenosine in the presence of Histamine- the concentration of histamine that gave the maximum and steady response was added to organ bath. The tissue was permitted to stabilise in order to reach steady contractions. Once reached, cumulative concentrations of adenosine were added (10-8M 10-4M) in order to observe the responses of the ileum to adenosine in the presence of histamine. Effect of PSB36(10-8M) SCH58261(10-7M) to confirm identity of receptors being investigated, cumulative dose-response curves for induced contractions by histamine were observed for adenosine in the presence of selective antagonists, PSB36 and SCH58261. An experiment was also carried out, which involved electrical field stimulation to contract the tissue, adenosine was added in the presence of these antagonists. Effect of Atropine Atropine concentrations of 10-6M 10-7M were added to establish the effects of atropine on the electrically field stimulated ileum. For each drug that was being tested except atropine, the experiment was repeated at least six times. The tissue was washed out three times at least after an experiment was completed and was allowed to recover before another experiment was carried out. The electrical field stimulation was also switched off each time the tissue was washed out. Chemicals and drugs The drugs that were used consisted of Adenosine hemisulphate salt, Histamine diphosphate salt and Atropine sulphate salt which were all purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, Poole, UK. PSB36 and SCH58261 and DMSO (Dimethyl sulfoxide) were purchased from Tocris -Cookson, Bristol, UK. All drugs were dissolved in distilled water with exceptions of PSB36 AND SCH58261 which were diluted with DMSO.10ml of stock solution were made up in each case. Statistical Analysis All drug concentrations presented were final bath concentrations. The drug effects were expressed as twitch contraction (g). All data were given as means  ± S.E.M, where n represents the number of animals from which tissues were taken and on which observations were made. Inhibitory effects by adenosine in the field stimulated guinea pig ileum were measured and the responses of ileum twitch contraction were recorded for each concentration applied. This was repeated when using adenosine receptor antagonists. Adenosine responses were fitted onto concentration-response curve. Effects of histamine stimulated guinea pig ileum were also recorded. Adenosine responses and its receptor antagonist response were measured and plotted. 3.0 RESULTS a. b. Figure 2. The effect of adenosine concentrations in the guinea-pig ileum. Data are means  ±S.E.M and are expressed as an average of contractions (g). a. Representative traces showing inhibitory responses induced by adenosine. b. Concentration response curve for adenosine representing the average twitch response (g) when cumulative adenosine concentrations were added. Each point with bar represents the mean  ± S.E.M (n=6). Figure 3a: Original trace illustrating twitch response abolished by atropine 10-6M final bath concentration. b. c. Figure 3. Influences of atropine and potent and selective A1 adenosine receptor antagonist PSB36 10-7M AND 10-8M on guinea-pig ileum. b. Twitch responses of the guinea-pig ileum preparation to electrical field stimulation in the presence of PSB36 10-7M (n=6) and PSB36 10-8M (n=4), compared to twitch responses to adenosine alone. The experiments carried out were not paired. Each point with bar represents the mean  ± S.E.M. c. Contractions of the guinea-pig ileum preparation stimulated by histamine in the presence of PSB36 10-7M (n=6) and PSB36 10-8M (n=4), compared to responses to adenosine when stimulated with histamine (n=6). The experiments carried out were not paired. Each point with bar represents the mean  ± S.E.M. a. b. Figure 4. Summarises the effect of potent and selective A2A adenosine receptor antagonist SCH58261 10-7M on guinea-pig ileum. a. Twitch responses of the guinea-pig ileum preparation to electrical field stimulation in the presence of SCH58261 10-7M (n=6), compared to twitch responses to adenosine alone. The experiments carried out were not paired. Each point with bar represents the mean  ± S.E.M. b. Contractions of the guinea-pig ileum preparation stimulated by histamine in the presence of SCH58261 10-7M (n=6), compared to responses to adenosine when stimulated with histamine (n=6). The experiments carried out were not paired. Each point with bar represents the mean  ± S.E.M. Figure5a. A concentration-response curve illustrating the effects of adenosine on the guinea-pig ileum when the tissue is stimulated with histamine. . Each point with bar represents the mean  ± S.E.M (n=6). Figure 5b. Responses of the guinea-pig ileum to cumulative concentrations of histamine. Each point with bar represents the mean  ± S.E.M (n=8). Electrical field stimulated guinea-pig ileum produced reproducible twitch responses to adenosine. Adenosine concentrations ranging from 10-8M final bath concentration caused concentration dependent inhibitory effects. Administration of increasing adenosine concentrations decreased electrically evoked acetylcholine release from the cholinergic nerve endings of the ileum (Figure2). Figure 2b clearly portrays that adenosine has no effect at low final bath concentrations of 10-11M. Atropine 10-6M final bath concentration abolished the twitch responses to electrical field stimulation confirming they were produced by cholinergic nerve stimulation (Figure3). In the presence of selective A1 adenosine receptor antagonist PSB36 10-7M and 10-8M concentration and electrical field stimulation, the twitch responses to adenosine decreased, when adenosine was applied at higher concentrations, the twitch responses became smaller as acetylcholine release was inhibited and completely prevented by PSB36. Figure 3a shows the curve shifted to the right when PSB36 10-8 was administered compared to the curve of adenosine. When PSB36 10-7 was applied there is a slight shift of the curve to the right compared to the adenosine curve. The effects of the antagonist PSB36 are seen significantly at 10-8M final bath concentration as the shift of the curve is greater. The highest response the ileum produced was as at adenosine concentration of 1 x 10-8M, the responses lowered slightly at 1 x 10-6M and consequently decreased rapidly at 1 x 10-5M final bath concentrations. Histamine induces contractions in the ileum. Addition of cumulative concentrations of adenosine in the presence of PSB36 10-7M produced small responses compared to the contractions produced in the presence of PSB36 10-8M. The effect of PSB36 10-8M caused a rightward shift compared to the curve representing the effect of adenosine in the presence of histamine (Figure 3b). Electrically field stimulated ileum in the presence of the selective adenosine receptor competitive antagonist SCH58261 produced smaller responses (Figure 4a). Following administration of cumulative concentrations the responses decreased however produced no right shift in the dose response curve. Histamine excites the tissue causing it to contract and producing a high response, when adenosine is applied in the presence of SCH58261, the responses are inhibited and acetylcholine release is decreased and thus there is a decrease in the shape of the curve in Figure 4b. The results expressed in Figure 5a illustrate the inhibitory effects of adenosine in the ileum. Figure 5b illustrates the effects of histamine concentrations on the ileum. The experiment was carried out to investigate the best concentration to use so that a maximum and strong, reproducible contraction would be produced; the figure confirmed 110-6M final bath concentration to give the highest and steady contraction of the tissue. Moreover this permitted to obtain a dose-response curve for adenosine with histamine providing a suitable starting concentration for each drug at 110-8M. DISCUSSION The results of this present study show that adenosine plays an inhibitory role on muscular contractility in guinea-pig ileum. Adenosine prevents the neuroeffector transmission in guinea-pig ileum. The action of adenosine appeared to be cholinergic prejunctional in nature, this is portrayed when adenosine is applied to electrically field stimulated guinea-pig ileum(Gustafsson et al., 1985b). The action of adenosine on histamine stimulated guinea-pig ileum in the absence and presence of adenosine antagonists also indicates reduction in neuroeffector transmission however due to postjunctional action. The effect of adenosine on the guinea-pig ileum can be observed in Figure 2. Adenosine produced a dose-dependent depression on the response. It reduced the electrically evoked acetylcholine release from the ileum. A1 and A2 receptors have been reported to reduce acetylcholine release in the gastrointestinal tract(Tomaru et al., 1995). Adenosine released from neuronal endings is thought to have direct actions on smooth muscle as they illustrate relaxant neurotransmitters in the gastrointestinal tract(Storr et al., 2002). Atropine is a competitive antagonist for the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor, consequently when applied to the ileum at 10-6M final bath concentration; there is rapid inhibition of response confirming that the twitch responses were produced by cholinergic nerve stimulation. Adenosine inhibited the twitch response of the electrically stimulated guinea-pig ileum preparation, in the presence of PSB36 10-8M final bath concentration there was a right shift in the adenosine curve thus interpreting that higher concentrations were required to lower the twitch response. The general trends that Figure 3a displays is that the curves have the same form; the linear proportions of the curves are parallel. The traces help to show the changes in the response curve to adenosine and adenosine selective receptor antagonist PSB36. There is a slight fall in tension when adenosine 310-7M was applied in the presence of PSB36 10-8M; however there was a rapid decrease when adenosine 110-5M was administered causing the right shift in the Figure. Upon cumulative additions of adenosine to field stimulated guinea pig ileum the concentration required to inhibit acetylcholine release was of 310-7M, the effects diminish once concentration of adenosine 110-5M was added providing evidence that adenosine has the ability to relax smooth muscle in the ileum. Since PSB36 is a potent and selective A1 adenosine receptor antagonist, the A2A receptors increase electrically induced twitch contractions in the guinea pig ileum, which contributes to assistance of acetylcholine release (Storr et al., 2002). The effects of adenosine in the presence of PSB36 10-7M 10-8M to histamine stimulated guinea pig ileum can be observed in Figure 3b. Histamine administration to the guinea pig ileum caused a tonic histamine contraction which was followed by after-relaxation response, and application of adenosine inhibited the acetylcholine release. The ileum responses were reduced significantly with lower concentrations of adenosine in the presence of PSB36 10-7M and 10-8M compared to the concentrations of adenosine required in the electrically field stimulated ileum confirming that A1 receptors are the subtype present in the guinea pig ileum which cause the inhibition of acetylcholine release. SCH58261 did not significantly affect the position of the rightward shift however additions of cumulative adenosine concentrations caused reduction in the tension produced by the ileum. Large standard error bars can be observed in the figures, these may be due to human handling errors, i.e. micropipetting errors, administrating less or more concentration of adenosine or antagonists. Protein build up causing contamination in organ baths can also contribute to acquiring inaccurate results. Particular cells of the tissue may have become inactive at that moment of time. Furthermore it could be that the piece of thread holding the tissue may have become loose i.e. equipment errors and consequently tension was not measured accurately. It could also be due to unknown errors. Evidence that adenosine inhibits cholinergic neuroeffector transmission in the ileum by a prejunctional action on acetylcholine release can be of functional importance as adenine compounds are released during stimulation of intestinal nerves (Tomaru et al., 1995). Antagonists selective for adenosine receptors are beneficial in the research treatment of numerous conditions including cardiovascular, neurodegenerative and inflammatory diseases. In summary, the present study has confirmed the existence of presynaptic A1 receptors on the parasympathetic nerve terminals in the guinea pig ileum which upon activation causes inhibition of electrically induced neurogenic, cholinergic twitch contractions.